Derinkuyu Underground City: Turkey's Ancient Subterranean Marvel with 18 Levels
The underground city of Derinkuyu, located in Cappadocia, Turkey, stands as one of the world's most remarkable archaeological discoveries. Unearthed accidentally in 1963 when a Turkish farmer discovered a mysterious opening in his home, this subterranean marvel has since revealed itself to be an extensive complex capable of housing up to 20,000 people. Stretching 85 meters deep with potentially 18 distinct levels, Derinkuyu features everything a functioning city requires—from stables and oil presses to wine storage, living quarters, and religious spaces.
The city's origins remain shrouded in mystery, though archaeological evidence suggests connections to several ancient civilizations. While many attribute its construction to the Phrygians who dominated Anatolia from approximately 900-690 BCE, the question remains why such accomplished builders would choose to create underground structures rather than traditional walled cities. Despite ongoing excavations revealing over 600 entrances to this vast network, historians continue to debate when and why this remarkable underground refuge was first created, though we know it remained inhabited until as recently as 1923.
Key Takeaways
Derinkuyu is an extensive 18-level underground city in Cappadocia that could house 20,000 people and contained all facilities needed for communal living.
The city's origins remain uncertain, with theories suggesting Phrygian construction despite limited historical evidence explaining why they would build underground.
Archaeological excavations have uncovered hundreds of entrances to the complex, revealing a sophisticated urban design that remained in use until the early 20th century.
Discovery of Derinkuyu
The remarkable underground city of Derinkuyu was accidentally discovered in 1963 when a Turkish farmer in Cappadocia was renovating his home. He noticed his chickens were disappearing through a crack in one of his walls. Upon investigating this mysterious opening, he stumbled upon something extraordinary – an entrance to a vast underground complex.
Archaeological excavations conducted since this chance discovery have revealed over 600 entrances to the Derinkuyu cave system. Most of these access points are located within private homes in the area. The underground city extends approximately 85 meters beneath the surface and contains what archaeologists believe to be 18 distinct levels.
Derinkuyu is not merely a simple shelter but a comprehensive underground community. The complex includes:
Stables and livestock pens
Residential areas
Oil presses
Wine and olive oil storage
Designated disposal areas for the deceased
A 55-meter deep ventilation shaft (originally a well)
Dry cellars
Dining halls
Religious chapels
At its peak, Derinkuyu could accommodate approximately 21,000 people. Most of the underground city has been excavated and is known to archaeologists, although rumors persist of undiscovered tunnels connecting to other underground settlements in the region.
The exact age of Derinkuyu remains uncertain. One widely accepted hypothesis suggests the Phrygians constructed it during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. The Phrygians were an Indo-European people who migrated from the Balkans to Anatolia around 1180 BCE. They became the dominant power in the region from approximately 900-690 BCE, after the collapse of the Hittite Empire.
Archaeological evidence supporting the Phrygian origin includes distinctive pottery styles found in the region. However, this theory raises questions about motivation – the Phrygians were accomplished builders of above-ground structures and walled cities. Why would they choose the more difficult task of excavating an underground settlement when they could build conventional structures?
The historical timeline of Derinkuyu's occupation is better documented than its origins. We know it was continuously inhabited through various periods, including Phrygian, Byzantine, and possibly Hittite eras. The city remained in use until 1923, providing shelter for nearly three millennia of human occupation.
The volcanic tuff of Cappadocia made this remarkable engineering feat possible. Though easier to excavate than granite, creating such an extensive underground network still represents an extraordinary achievement for ancient builders.
Extent of the Underground City
Derinkuyu stands as a testament to ancient engineering prowess, extending 85 meters below the surface of Cappadocia, Turkey. This remarkable underground metropolis consists of 18 distinct levels, creating a complex network capable of housing approximately 21,000 people during its peak usage.
The underground city features over 600 entrance points, with many hidden within private residences. These strategic access points allowed inhabitants to enter and exit discreetly when necessary. Archaeological excavations have revealed most of the city structure, though some speculate that unexplored tunnels may connect to other underground settlements in the region.
Derinkuyu functioned as a complete subterranean community rather than merely a temporary shelter. The city contained:
Livestock pens and stables
Oil presses for food production
Wine and olive oil storage facilities
Specialized areas for disposing of deceased community members
Dry cellars for food preservation
Communal dining halls
Religious chapels for worship
A 55-meter ventilation shaft, originally serving as a water well, provided fresh air throughout the underground complex. This engineering feature proved crucial for sustaining life below the surface for extended periods.
While the city remained inhabited until 1923, its origins remain somewhat mysterious. Archaeological evidence suggests involvement from several civilizations, including the Byzantines, Phrygians, and possibly even the Hittites. The volcanic tuff landscape of Cappadocia provided relatively soft material for excavation while still maintaining structural integrity.
Historical Habitation and Use
The underground city of Derinkuyu was discovered in 1963 when a Turkish farmer found a mysterious crack in his wall where his chickens were disappearing. Archaeological excavations since then have revealed over 600 entrances to this extensive cave system, many located within private homes. This remarkable underground complex extends 85 meters below the surface of Cappadocia and consists of 18 levels.
Derinkuyu was continuously inhabited until 1923, with evidence of occupation by Byzantines, Phrygians, and possibly Hittites. The city could accommodate up to 21,000 people at its peak and featured a comprehensive infrastructure including stables, livestock pens, houses, oil presses, wine and olive oil storage areas, and designated spaces for disposing of the dead.
The origins of Derinkuyu remain somewhat mysterious. One prevailing hypothesis suggests Phrygian construction in the 8th-7th centuries BC. The Phrygians, an Indo-European people originally from the Balkans northwest of Macedonia, migrated to Anatolia around 1180 BC. Archaeological evidence, including distinctive Balkan pottery found at Troy 7B, supports their presence in the region during this period.
From approximately 900-690 BC, the Phrygians dominated Anatolia, filling the power vacuum left by the collapsed Hittite Empire. They later became part of the Lydian Kingdom until 546 BC when Persian forces conquered the region. The legendary King Midas may have been a Phrygian ruler, though historical records remain ambiguous.
A curious aspect of attributing Derinkuyu's construction to the Phrygians is their known expertise in above-ground architecture. They were accomplished wall builders, architects, and engineers comparable to contemporary Greeks. Building underground would have been significantly more challenging than constructing vertical structures, even considering the relatively workable volcanic tuff of the region.
Xenophon's classical text Anabasis mentions underground dwellings in the region, though these appear to be single-family homes rather than extensive underground cities. This discrepancy adds to the intrigue surrounding Derinkuyu's origins.
The city features an impressive 55-meter deep ventilation shaft that originally functioned as a well serving the entire community. Additional amenities include:
Dry cellars for food storage
Communal dining halls
Religious chapels
Extensive ventilation systems
Archaeologists believe most of Derinkuyu has been discovered and excavated, though local legends persist about tunnels stretching for miles to neighboring underground cities in the region.
Mysterious Underground Origins and Building Chronology
The underground city of Derinkuyu remains one of archaeology's most fascinating puzzles. Discovered in 1963 when a Turkish farmer in Cappadocia found a hidden entrance during home renovations, this remarkable subterranean structure extends approximately 85 meters deep with potentially 18 distinct levels. Despite extensive excavation revealing around 600 entrances, the city's origins and construction timeline remain shrouded in mystery.
Multiple Civilizations' Contributions
The underground metropolis shows evidence of occupation by several ancient peoples, making it difficult to attribute its creation to a single civilization. Archaeological findings confirm Byzantine presence, along with clear indications of Phrygian modifications and likely Hittite involvement as well.
The timeline becomes particularly challenging when examining Phrygian influence. These Indo-European people, believed to have migrated from the Balkans northwest of Macedonia, arrived in Anatolia around 1180 BCE. From approximately 900-690 BCE, they dominated the region as the successor kingdom to the collapsed Hittite Empire.
Evidence supporting Phrygian presence includes:
Distinctive Balkan pottery found at Troy 7B (c. 1180 BCE)
Assyrian records from King Tiglath-Pileser I mentioning the "Mushki" people (likely Phrygians)
Architectural elements consistent with Phrygian craftsmanship
Their reign ended when conquered by Samaria, after which they existed under Lydian rule (690-546 BCE) until Persian conquest.
Archaeological Theories and Evidence
The most accepted hypothesis suggests Phrygian construction in the 8th-7th centuries BCE, though this timeline raises important questions. Phrygians were accomplished architects and wall-builders comparable to their Greek contemporaries. Their engineering capabilities make the decision to build underground rather than aboveground particularly puzzling.
Key archaeological findings include:
A 55-meter ventilation shaft (originally a well)
Infrastructure for 20,000+ inhabitants
Sophisticated design elements including:
Livestock pens and stables
Oil presses
Wine/olive oil storage areas
Dedicated burial chambers
Dry cellars and dining halls
Religious chapels
Xenophon's Anabasis, the only classical text mentioning underground dwellings in the region, describes only single-family subterranean homes rather than extensive cities. This historical gap complicates dating efforts further.
The volcanic tuff geology of Cappadocia, while softer than granite, still presents significant engineering challenges compared to traditional aboveground construction. This makes the decision to build such an elaborate underground complex even more remarkable and mysterious.
The Phrygians' Underground Legacy
Phrygian Historical Context
The Phrygians were an Indo-European people who originated in the Balkans, northwest of Macedonia. Archaeological evidence suggests they migrated to Anatolia around 1180 BCE, as indicated by their distinctive pottery found at Troy 7B. From approximately 900-690 BCE, the Phrygians established themselves as the dominant kingdom in Anatolia, filling the power vacuum left by the collapsed Hittite Empire during the Bronze Age collapse. Their influence waned when they were conquered by the Kingdom of Samaria from across the Black Sea. The Phrygians later existed under Lydian rule from about 690-546 BCE, before ultimately falling to Persian conquest.
Theoretical Phrygian Construction
The prevailing archaeological hypothesis suggests that Derinkuyu, the massive underground city in Cappadocia, Turkey, was constructed by the Phrygians during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. This remarkable subterranean settlement extends 85 meters deep with potentially 18 levels, featuring over 600 entrance points. The city was comprehensively designed with practical facilities including:
Stables and livestock pens
Residential quarters
Oil presses and wine storage
Dedicated burial areas
A 55-meter ventilation shaft
Dry cellars and dining halls
Religious chapels
At its peak, Derinkuyu could accommodate approximately 21,000 people, functioning as a complete underground community rather than merely a temporary shelter.
Architectural Inconsistencies with Phrygian Practices
Several factors cast doubt on attributing Derinkuyu's initial construction solely to the Phrygians. The Phrygians were accomplished architects and engineers on par with their Greek contemporaries, known particularly for building impressive walled cities and vertical structures. This raises a significant question: why would a civilization with advanced above-ground building capabilities choose the more labor-intensive option of excavating an underground city?
The geological composition of Cappadocia consists of volcanic ash compacted over millions of years—easier to excavate than granite, but still more challenging than conventional construction. Additionally, while Xenophon's Anabasis mentions underground dwellings in the region, it describes only small family units rather than extensive underground cities.
The Phrygians were already well-established in the region by the 8th-7th centuries BCE and possessed the capability to construct fortified cities to protect against raids. This suggests the possibility that Derinkuyu may have predated their arrival in the region, with the Phrygians perhaps expanding or modifying an existing structure rather than initiating its construction.
Cultural and Historical Context
Ancient Pottery Evidence and Regional Influence
Archaeological discoveries provide significant insights into the early settlement patterns of Derinkuyu. The distinctive Balkan pottery style found at Troy layer 7B, dating to approximately 1180 BCE, suggests a Phrygian presence in Anatolia much earlier than previously established. This pottery evidence becomes crucial when attempting to understand who might have first developed the underground structures. The volcanic tuff formations of Cappadocia, while easier to excavate than granite, still required considerable engineering skill to transform into habitable spaces.
The excavated areas of Derinkuyu reveal sophisticated designs that could accommodate up to 20,000 people at its peak, featuring:
Stables and livestock pens
Residential quarters
Oil presses and wine production facilities
Food storage areas
Ventilation shafts (including one 55 meters deep)
Chapels and community gathering spaces
Language Development and Historical Records
Assyrian records provide valuable documentation about population movements in ancient Anatolia. The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I mentioned defeating people called the "Mushki" in the early 12th century BCE—a term later associated with Phrygians by Middle Eastern civilizations. The Phrygian language itself shared similarities with Greek, using a comparable alphabet system, though linguistic evidence remains limited in certain archaeological contexts.
Xenophon's classical text, the Anabasis, mentions underground dwellings in the region, though these descriptions appear to reference smaller family units rather than the extensive urban complexes archaeologists have uncovered. This discrepancy highlights the challenges in connecting historical accounts with physical evidence.
Regional Power Dynamics and Historical Timeline
The Phrygian kingdom dominated Anatolia from approximately 900-690 BCE, filling the power vacuum left by the collapse of the Hittite Empire during the Bronze Age collapse. Their reign ended when conquered by Cimmerians from across the Black Sea. The timeline of regional control followed this pattern:
Period Controlling Power 900-690 BCE Phrygian Kingdom 690-546 BCE Lydian Kingdom Post-546 BCE Persian Empire
Greek legends possibly reference Phrygian rulers, with King Midas potentially being a historical Phrygian monarch, though scholarly debate continues about proper identification. The question remains why a civilization capable of sophisticated above-ground architecture would invest such extensive efforts underground, especially considering the Phrygians' demonstrated expertise in constructing fortified cities with walls and vertical structures.
Modern Interpretations and Ongoing Mysteries
Beneath the iconic fairy mounds of Cappadocia lies Derinkuyu, an extraordinary underground city that continues to perplex archaeologists and historians. Discovered in 1963 when a Turkish farmer's chickens vanished through a crack in his wall, this complex network has revealed over 600 entrances, many hidden within private residences.
The massive underground structure extends 85 meters deep with possibly 18 distinct levels. Despite extensive excavation, significant questions remain about its origins and purpose. Archaeological evidence suggests it could house up to 21,000 people at its peak, featuring not merely basic shelter but comprehensive urban infrastructure.
Derinkuyu contains remarkably sophisticated facilities including:
Stables and livestock pens
Residential quarters
Oil presses
Wine and olive oil storage areas
Designated burial spaces
A 55-meter ventilation shaft (originally a well)
Dry cellars
Communal dining halls
Religious chapels
The dating of Derinkuyu presents a fascinating puzzle. The prevailing hypothesis attributes its construction to the Phrygians during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. However, this raises questions about motivation, as the established Phrygian kingdom had the engineering capability to build conventional walled cities aboveground.
Phrygian presence in Anatolia dates back further than once thought. Archaeological evidence, particularly distinctive pottery styles found at Troy 7B (circa 1180 BCE), suggests they arrived in the region shortly after Troy's legendary fall. Assyrian records from King Tiglath-Pileser I mention defeating people called "Mushki" in the early 12th century BCE—a term later associated with Phrygians.
The Phrygian timeline in Anatolia shows:
Period Status 1180 BCE Earliest evidence (pottery at Troy 7B) 900-690 BCE Dominant kingdom in Anatolia 690-546 BCE Under Lydian rule After 546 BCE Conquered by Persians
Their architectural capabilities make the underground construction puzzling. Building walls and aboveground structures would have been significantly easier than excavating the compacted volcanic tuff, despite its relative softness compared to granite.
Interestingly, the only classical reference to underground dwellings comes from Xenophon's Anabasis, but he describes only small family units rather than extensive cities. This suggests either that the massive underground complexes were abandoned or hidden by his time, or that they served purposes not evident to passing travelers.
Derinkuyu isn't unique—hundreds of similar underground cities honeycomb the Cappadocian landscape. Local legends persist about undiscovered tunnels connecting these subterranean communities across miles, hinting at a vast network beyond what has been officially documented.
