The Lost Colony of Roanoke: America's Oldest Unsolved Mystery (1584-1590)
The Roanoke Colony remains one of history's most enigmatic disappearances, presenting a 16th-century mystery that continues to baffle researchers and historians. Established in 1584 under the charter granted to Sir Walter Raleigh by Queen Elizabeth I, the settlement faced numerous challenges from its inception. The colony was planned amid the Anglo-Spanish War, serving both economic interests and potential military strategy against Spanish expansion in North America.
The expedition encountered significant setbacks before even reaching the New World. The flagship Tiger, carrying most of the colony's supplies, ran aground on a shoal, destroying critical resources. Upon arrival, relations with local Secotan tribes quickly deteriorated after a misunderstanding over a missing silver cup led to violent retaliation by the colonists. As winter set in, mysterious illnesses began affecting native populations following contact with the English, creating further suspicion and hostility between the groups. Chief Pemissupon, recognizing the technological advantage of the English, attempted to manipulate both sides through misinformation, sowing seeds of distrust that would ultimately contribute to the colony's precarious situation.
Key Takeaways
The Roanoke Colony was established in challenging circumstances, including resource shortages and navigational disasters.
Misunderstandings and cultural conflicts quickly undermined relations between English settlers and native tribes.
Disease and strategic deception by native leadership created an atmosphere of mutual distrust that threatened the colony's survival.
Background of the Roanoke Colony
The Roanoke Colony began in 1584 when Queen Elizabeth I granted Sir Walter Raleigh a charter to establish a settlement on the east coast of what would become the United States. This charter came with a deadline—the colony had to be established by 1591 or Raleigh would lose his rights to the land. The location chosen was an island off North Carolina's coast, in the Outer Banks region.
This colonial effort occurred during the Anglo-Spanish War, giving the venture strategic importance beyond mere settlement. A British presence in North America would provide both economic benefits and a military foothold against Spanish operations in the New World.
The initial plan called for 690 colonists, but recruitment fell short by nearly 100 people. The expedition consisted of seven ships, with the flagship Tiger carrying most of the colony's supplies. The remaining vessels transported primarily military personnel, as this was intended to be more of a military outpost than a traditional settlement with families.
During the journey, disaster struck. The ships became separated while rounding Portugal, following the standard route to the Americas. The Tiger reached the rendezvous point at Puerto Rico first, later joined by the Elizabeth, but several ships never arrived. More critically, the Tiger ran aground on a shoal in the notoriously shallow waters of the Outer Banks, destroying most of the colony's supplies.
Relations with the local Secotan people began poorly. After an initial friendly meeting, the colonists discovered a silver cup was missing and accused the natives of theft. When the natives denied taking it, the English responded with violence, massacring several indigenous people. Despite this inauspicious beginning, the colonists managed to establish an agreement with Chief Pemissupon to settle at Roanoke.
By September 8, 1585, the ships had departed for England, leaving 107 colonists behind. The winter brought exploration efforts and contact with other tribes, but a troubling pattern emerged—natives fell ill after English contact. Neither group understood germ theory, with natives attributing their illnesses to supernatural forces wielded by the English.
Tensions mounted as the resource-strapped colonists placed increasing demands on the Secotan people. Chief Pemissupon, recognizing the English technological advantage, employed strategic deception rather than direct confrontation. He warned inland tribes that the English planned to attack them while simultaneously telling the colonists they would face ambushes if they ventured inland.
This mutual distrust and manipulation created a volatile situation. When English colonists did venture inland, they were primed for conflict, expecting hostility from the natives they encountered.
Sir Walter Raleigh's Charter and the Colonial Stakes in the New World
Queen Elizabeth I granted Sir Walter Raleigh a charter in 1584 to establish a colony on the east coast of what is now the United States. This territory stretched from the Outer Banks region through the Chesapeake Bay. The charter came with a crucial deadline: the colony had to be established by 1591, or Raleigh would forfeit his settlement rights.
The timing of this colonial venture coincided with the Anglo-Spanish War, adding geopolitical significance to the mission. England lacked a foothold in continental North America while Spain was actively expanding its colonial presence. A successful English settlement would serve dual purposes: economic development and a strategic military position against Spanish naval operations in the region.
The initial expedition plan called for 690 colonists to settle on Roanoke Island, but recruitment fell short by nearly 100 people. Supply challenges further complicated matters. The expedition fleet consisted of seven ships, with the flagship Tiger carrying most of the essential supplies and equipment.
The Expedition Fleet Structure:
Ship Name Primary Function Notable Details Tiger Supply transport Flagship, carried majority of colony supplies Elizabeth Personnel transport Successfully rendezvoused with Tiger 5 other vessels Military personnel Some later reassigned to other missions
The journey followed the standard route of the era—sailing down to Portugal, crossing the Atlantic to the Caribbean, then heading north to North America. Disaster struck when the Tiger separated from the fleet near Portugal. Though there was a contingency plan to regroup near Puerto Rico, only the Elizabeth managed to rendezvous with the Tiger there.
The expedition faced a catastrophic setback when the Tiger ran aground on a shoal, destroying most of the onboard supplies. This disaster might have been avoidable with better planning regarding the settlement location, as the Outer Banks are notoriously shallow and hazardous for large sailing vessels.
Upon arrival at Roanoke, relations with the native Secotans quickly deteriorated. After a missing silver cup incident, the colonists responded with disproportionate violence, massacring several natives. Despite this bloody beginning, they eventually negotiated an agreement with Chief Pemissupon to establish a joint settlement.
By September 8, 1585, the ships returned to England, leaving 107 colonists behind. The winter brought exploration attempts and meetings with neighboring tribes, but a troubling pattern emerged—natives fell ill following English contact. Without understanding germ theory, the natives attributed these illnesses to supernatural forces, while the English remained unaware of their role in spreading diseases like influenza or smallpox.
Tensions escalated due to resource strain and mutual distrust. Chief Pemissupon, recognizing his technological disadvantage, employed diplomacy instead of direct confrontation. He warned inland tribes about potential English aggression while simultaneously cautioning the English about hostile natives inland, setting the stage for future conflict.
Complications with Settler Participation and Resources
The Roanoke colony project faced several significant challenges from its inception. Despite plans for 690 colonists, recruitment fell short by nearly 100 people. This personnel shortage was compounded by critical supply problems that weren't the result of poor planning but rather unforeseen circumstances.
The expedition consisted of seven ships, with the flagship Tiger carrying most essential supplies. The remaining vessels primarily transported military personnel rather than families, as the initial settlement was conceived more as a military fort than a traditional colony.
When navigating around Portugal on the Atlantic route, the Tiger became separated from the fleet. Though contingency plans directed ships to regroup near Puerto Rico, only the Elizabeth managed to rendezvous with the Tiger. More disastrously, the Tiger ran aground on a shoal, destroying most of the colony's supplies.
This accident might have been prevented with better location planning. The Outer Banks region is notoriously shallow for considerable distances from shore, making navigation treacherous for large sailing vessels with deep drafts.
Relations with local indigenous peoples complicated matters further. Despite initial positive interactions with the Secotans, tensions quickly emerged after colonists accused natives of stealing a silver cup. When denied, the English responded with disproportionate violence, massacring numerous indigenous people.
Although the colonists eventually established an agreement with Chief Pemissupon's Secotan people for a joint settlement at Roanoke, problems persisted. The English unknowingly spread diseases to native populations who interpreted these illnesses as supernatural attacks rather than biological phenomena, as neither culture understood germ theory.
Resource pressures created additional strain between the groups. Having lost most of their supplies in the Tiger incident, colonists became increasingly dependent on Secotan resources for survival. This dependency, combined with mutual distrust and disease concerns, inevitably led to hostilities.
Pemissupon employed strategic deception rather than direct confrontation, warning inland tribes that the English planned to attack them while simultaneously telling the English they would face ambushes if they ventured inland. This misinformation created a self-fulfilling prophecy when English expeditions, expecting hostility, preemptively attacked native warriors they encountered.
Voyage Challenges and Shipwreck of the Tiger
The expedition to Roanoke faced significant obstacles from the beginning. Sir Walter Raleigh's colonial charter required establishment by 1591, but recruitment fell short by nearly 100 colonists. The expedition deployed seven ships, with the flagship Tiger carrying most of the essential supplies and equipment for the settlement.
During the journey, the Tiger became separated from the fleet while rounding Portugal. Following contingency plans, the vessel was meant to regroup with other ships on the southern side of Puerto Rico. The Tiger arrived first, eventually meeting with the Elizabeth, but the remaining five ships failed to rendezvous as planned.
The most devastating setback occurred when the Tiger ran aground on a shoal in the notoriously shallow waters of the Outer Banks. This maritime disaster destroyed most of the colony's supplies, critically undermining their preparedness for settlement. The ship's wreck represented more than just a navigation error - it compromised the entire colonial mission's sustainability.
The Outer Banks region presented particular navigation challenges for large vessels like the Tiger. These galleons displaced significant water volume and required deeper channels than the shallow coastal waters could provide. This miscalculation in selecting landing locations contributed directly to the supply shortage that would plague the colonists throughout their stay.
By September 8, 1585, the last ships departed for England, leaving 107 colonists to establish the settlement under Ralph Lane's leadership. Without adequate provisions due to the Tiger's wreck, the colonists became increasingly dependent on local Native American tribes for resources, creating tensions that would ultimately contribute to conflict between the settlers and indigenous populations.
Natives' First Contact and Conflict
The initial interactions between English settlers and the indigenous Secotean people of Roanoke Island set the stage for a troubled relationship. When Sir Ralph Lane's expedition arrived in 1585, they met with natives who had previously encountered English explorers. Despite an initially cordial meeting including a shared meal and discussions, tensions quickly emerged when a silver cup went missing.
Instead of diplomatic resolution, the English response was disproportionately violent - they conducted a massacre of natives after accusations of theft. This brutal act created immediate hostility, though surprisingly, the groups managed to negotiate an agreement for a joint settlement on Roanoke Island with Chief Pemissupon's Secotean people.
The colony officially began with 107 English settlers by September 8, 1585, after their ships returned to England. What followed was a period of exploration and contact with neighboring tribes, but a disturbing pattern emerged. Indigenous people began falling ill following English visits to their settlements.
Neither group understood germ theory, leading to misinterpretations of these illnesses. The natives believed the English were using supernatural powers to cause sickness, when the reality was likely the unintentional spread of European diseases like influenza or smallpox.
Relations deteriorated further as the resource-strained English colonists (having lost most of their supplies when their flagship Tiger ran aground) placed increasing demands on the Secotean people. Chief Pemissupon, recognizing the technological advantage of the English, employed strategic deception rather than direct confrontation.
The chief's strategy involved playing both sides against each other:
Told mainland tribes the English planned to attack them
Warned the English they would face hostile natives if they ventured inland
This manipulation created a self-fulfilling prophecy. When English parties explored inland, they anticipated hostility and preemptively attacked native warriors they encountered, further escalating tensions between the groups.
Settlement and Challenges with the Secotan Tribe
The initial contact between English colonists and the Secotan tribe set the stage for a troubled relationship. After the Tiger ran aground on a shoal, destroying most of the colony's supplies, the settlers found themselves more dependent on local resources than planned. This dependency created immediate tension with the native population.
A significant misstep occurred during early diplomatic meetings. When a silver cup went missing after a gathering with the Secotan, the colonists jumped to conclusions about theft. Rather than pursuing peaceful resolution, they responded with disproportionate violence against the tribe, massacring several natives over this minor incident.
Despite this bloody beginning, the English managed to negotiate an agreement with the Secotan people. The arrangement allowed the 107 colonists to establish a settlement on Roanoke Island alongside the Secotan, who were led by Chief Pemissupon.
A mysterious phenomenon complicated relations further. Native Americans who came into contact with the English settlers frequently fell ill afterward. Neither side understood that European diseases, likely influenza or smallpox, were spreading to the immunologically unprepared indigenous population.
The Secotan interpreted these illnesses through their cultural framework, believing the English possessed supernatural abilities to cause sickness. This misunderstanding deepened the mistrust between the groups.
As winter progressed, the colony's resource demands strained the Secotan's goodwill. Chief Pemissupon, recognizing his technological disadvantage against English weapons, employed strategic deception rather than direct confrontation. He warned mainland tribes that the English planned to attack them, while simultaneously telling the colonists they would face ambushes if they ventured inland.
This double-dealing created a dangerous situation. When English explorers did travel to the mainland, they expected hostility based on Pemissupon's warnings. Prepared for conflict, they preemptively attacked native warriors they encountered, further escalating tensions in the region.
The Mysterious Illness and English-Native Relations
The initial interactions between the English colonists and the Secotean people at Roanoke were complex and ultimately fraught with misunderstandings. After the English fleet arrived at Roanoke in 1585, they established contact with local tribes who had previously encountered English explorers. These early meetings seemed promising despite an unfortunate incident involving a missing silver cup that led to disproportionate violence against the natives.
Ralph Lane, who led the colony of 107 settlers, attempted to establish a relationship with Chief Pemissupon and the Secotean people. The English and Secoteans reached an agreement to share the settlement area at Roanoke Island. This arrangement seemed workable at first, but several factors soon strained relations.
Key Factors Contributing to Deteriorating Relations:
Loss of English supplies when the flagship Tiger ran aground
Increased dependency on native resources for survival
Mysterious illnesses affecting native populations
Cultural and technological differences
Strategic deception by Pemissupon
The most perplexing element was a pattern of illness that emerged whenever English settlers visited native villages. Native Americans would mysteriously fall ill shortly after English visits, a phenomenon neither group understood. Without knowledge of germ theory, the natives attributed these illnesses to supernatural powers wielded by the English colonists. These were likely European diseases such as influenza or smallpox, against which native populations had no immunity.
Pemissupon recognized the technological advantages the English possessed and chose strategy over direct confrontation. He deliberately sowed distrust between the English and other mainland tribes, telling the mainland tribes that the English planned to attack them while simultaneously warning the English about potential ambushes inland.
This web of deception created a self-fulfilling prophecy. When English colonists ventured inland, they were prepared for hostility and quick to interpret any native gathering as a threat. The misunderstandings caused by disease and Pemissupon's maneuvering contributed significantly to the breakdown of relations between the English and native populations at Roanoke.
Technological Disparity and Deception Among Tribes
The clash between European settlers and indigenous peoples at Roanoke Island revealed sophisticated tactics employed when facing technological disadvantages. In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh received a charter from Queen Elizabeth I to establish a colony on the east coast of what would become the United States. This settlement had both economic and military significance during the Anglo-Spanish War.
The expedition faced immediate challenges. Rather than the planned 690 colonists, they were short by nearly 100 people. More critically, when the seven-ship fleet traveled toward the New World, the flagship Tiger—carrying most supplies—separated from the fleet and later ran aground on a shoal, destroying vital resources.
Upon arrival at Roanoke, relations with the native Secotans quickly soured. After a missing silver cup incident, the English massacred natives, creating immediate hostility. Despite this, they established an uneasy alliance with Chief Pemissupon and the Secotans.
The 107 colonists who remained faced unexpected consequences of their presence. Indigenous people began falling ill after English contact—likely from European diseases like influenza or smallpox. Without understanding germ theory, natives attributed these illnesses to supernatural forces or spells cast by the English.
Pemissupon recognized the technological superiority of English weapons and devised a strategic response:
Diplomatic manipulation - He maintained a facade of peace with the English
Information warfare - He warned mainland tribes that the English planned to attack them
False intelligence - He told the English they would face hostile ambushes if they ventured inland
This calculated approach demonstrates Pemissupon's understanding that direct confrontation would be disastrous. Instead, he attempted to isolate the English by creating mutual suspicion between them and neighboring tribes. The strategy aimed to limit English expansion without directly engaging their superior weaponry.
Hostilities and Conflicts with Native Americans
The initial encounters between English colonists and Native Americans in the Roanoke settlement began with diplomatic tensions that quickly escalated into violence. During the 1584 expedition led by Ralph Lane, the disappearance of a silver cup during a meeting with local natives led to a disproportionate response from the English. Rather than negotiating, the colonists responded with force, massacring members of the native community. This brutal action immediately damaged relations with the Secotans, the primary indigenous people of the region.
Despite this violent beginning, the English and Secotans, led by Chief Pemissupon, eventually established a tenuous agreement for cohabitation on Roanoke Island. The arrangement allowed 107 English colonists to remain after September 8, 1585, when the last ships returned to England.
Disease Transmission and Native Suspicion
An alarming pattern emerged during English visits to native settlements. Indigenous people began falling ill shortly after contact with the colonists. Neither party understood germ theory at the time, leading the native communities to believe the English possessed supernatural abilities to cause sickness. These were likely European diseases such as influenza or smallpox, to which the native populations had no immunity.
Strategic Deception
As tensions grew between Pemissupon's people and the English colonists, the chief recognized the technological advantage held by the Europeans. Rather than engaging in direct conflict, Pemissupon employed strategic deception:
He warned other mainland tribes that English colonists planned to move inland and attack them
Simultaneously, he told the English that inland movement would likely result in native ambushes
This dual manipulation created a self-fulfilling prophecy. When the English ventured inland, they expected hostility and preemptively attacked native warriors they encountered, further deteriorating relations between the groups.
The strain on local resources contributed significantly to the growing animosity. Having lost many of their supplies when the Tiger ran aground, the colonists became increasingly dependent on Secotan provisions. This dependency, combined with the spread of disease and mutual distrust, created an unstable and ultimately unsustainable relationship.
